Parenting by same-sex couples

Among the homophobic retorts to the possibility of adoption by same-sex couples, is the notion that these couples cannot provide the conditions for proper upbringing and adopted children are more likely to become themselves homosexual. The concern implies, of course, that this is a problem, that somehow it would imply the propagation of an unnatural behavior. However, one need also address whether the availble evidence shows this to be the case or not. I conducted a cursory review of the scientific literature on the topic, and found a number of recent reviews that indicate children adopted by same-sex couples are no more likely to become homosexual than those adopted by heterosexual parents. Here is a summary of some of those papers:

• Tasker, F. (2005) Lesbian mothers, gay fathers, and their children: A review. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26, 224-240.

Abstract: (...) Findings from research suggest that children with lesbian or gay parents are comparable with children with heterosexual parents on key psychosocial developmental outcomes. In many ways, children of lesbian or gay parents have similar experiences of family life compared with children in heterosexual families.

• Leung, P., Erich, S., & Kanenberg, H. (2005) A comparison of family functioning in gay/lesbian, heterosexual and special needs adoptions. Children and Youth Services Review, 27, 1031-1044.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to identify possible contributing factors to family functioning in three types of adoptive families: those headed by gays/lesbians, those headed by heterosexuals, and those involving the adoption of children with special needs. These three adoptive family types were examined concurrently so that commonalities and differences could be identified and considered for use in adoption practice. A multiple regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between the dependent variable (standardized family functioning score) and independent vafiables (child behavior scores, special needs adoption, gay/lesbian headed families, age at adoption and at interview, diagnoses of disabilities, total social support score, number of previous placements, previous abuse and co-sibling adoption). Results indicated no negative effects for the parenting of adopted children by gay/lesbian headed families.

• Greenfeld, D.A. (2005) Reproduction in same sex couples: quality of parenting and child development. Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology, 17, 309-312.

Recent findings The current literature on [families with same-sex parents] is limited by small sample sizes and a predominance of studies of lesbian mothers and their children, with few studies of gay fathers and their children. A recent study of adolescents living with same sex parents recruited from a large national sample supports the notion that adolescents raised by same sex couples are doing well psychologically and are not more likely to be homosexual. The authors concluded that it was the quality of parenting, not parental sexual orientation that accounted for developmental differences. The literature supports the notion that children of lesbian mothers and gay fathers are not more likely to become homosexual and are not measurably different from children raised by heterosexual parents in terms of personality development, psychological development, and gender identity. Larger longitudinal studies of same sex parents, particularly gay men, are needed, including those who choose to become parents through the use of assisted reproduction.

• Anderssen, N., Amlie, C., & Ytteroy, E.A. (2002) Outcomes for children with lesbian or gay parents. A review of studies from 1978 to 2000. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 43, 335-351.

Abstract: Twenty-three empirical studies published between 1978 and 2000 on nonclinical children raised by lesbian mothers or gay fathers were reviewed (one Belgian/Dutch, one Danish, three British, and 18 North American). Twenty reported on offspring of lesbian mothers, and three on offspring of gay fathers The studies encompassed a total of 615 offspring (age range 1.5-44 years) of lesbian mothers or gay fathers and 387 controls, who were assessed by psychological tests, questionnaires or interviews. Seven types of outcomes were found to be typical: emotional functioning, sexual preference, stigmatization, gender role behavior, behavioral adjustment, gender identity, and cognitive functioning Children raised by lesbian mothers or gay fathers did not systematically differ from other children on any of the outcomes. The studies indicate that children raised by lesbian women do not experience adverse outcomes compared with other children. The same holds for children raised by gay men, but more studies should be done.

• Fitzgerald, B. (1999) Children of lesbian and gay parents: A review of the literature. Marriage and Family Review, 29, 57-75.

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to review the research literature concerning the development of children with gay and lesbian parents. It begins by discussing some of the social, theoretical, and legal implications of studying this population, and critiques a number of the assumptions guiding this research. The review then proceeds to include studies on children of divorced lesbian and gay parents, as well as studies conducted on children of gay and lesbian families that are planned. The body of literature generally concludes that children with lesbian and gay parents are developing psychologically, intellectually, behaviorally, and emotionally in positive directions, and that the sexual orientation of parents is not an effective or important predictor of successful child development.

• Tasker, F. & Golombok, S. (1995) Adults Raised as Children in Lesbian Families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65, 203-215.

Abstract: A longitudinal study of 25 young adults from lesbian families and 21 raised by heterosexual single mothers revealed that those raised by lesbian mothers functioned well in adulthood in terms of psychological well-being and of family identity and relationships. The commonly held assumption that lesbian mothers will have lesbian daughters and gay sons was not supported by the findings.

I did find some articles that state in the contrary in their abstract, most of which by Dr. Paul Cameron. For instance:

• Cameron, P. & Cameron, K. (1998) Homosexual parents: A comparative forensic study of character and harms to children. Psychological Reports, 82, 1155-1191.

Abstract: 40 appeals cases of custody disputes drawn systematically from all cases involving a homosexual parent in the United States were compared to 38 appeals cases involving heterosexual custody disputes drawn randomly from listings under parental "character" and 18 appeals cases drawn randomly from "general" cases in Dicennial Digest from 1966 to 1991. Each case involving homosexual vs heterosexual claimants was examined for recorded information about (1) the character of the homosexual parent, the associates of the homosexual parent, the heterosexual parent, and the associates of the heterosexual parent, (2) the effects, particularly harms, upon the child(ren), and (3) psychiatric opinion. 82% of the homosexual vs 18% of the heterosexual parents and 54% of the homosexual's associates vs 19% of the heterosexuals' associates were recorded as having poor character in cases involving a homosexual claimant. Of the 66 recorded harms, e.g., molestation, physical abuse, to the 73 children, homosexual persons accounted for 64 (97%). Of the 32 lesbians, 6 mere recorded as having engaged in criminal activity and 3 of bringing false charges of child sexual abuse against the father. Psychiatric opinion, however, ran 25 to 12 in favor of custody for the homosexual parent. In the 56 heterosexual vs heterosexual comparison cases, 18% of the heterosexual parents and 28% of their associates were recorded as having poor character. Six harms to their 105 children and 3 instances of criminality but no false charges of sexual abuse were recorded. In the appeals court literature, homosexual parents were disproportionately of poor character and disproportionately associated with various harms to their children.

These are articles published in peer-reviews journals, but it is worthwhile pointing out that P. Cameron is the chairman of the Family Research Institute, whose mission statement is

to generate empirical research on issues that threaten the traditional family, particularly homosexuality, AIDS, sexual social policy, and drug abuse. FRI believes that published scientific material has a profound impact, both in the United States and around the world.
FRI was the first traditionally-minded organization to conduct scientific research in these areas and to publish it in peer-reviewed professional journals. Produced by scholars, this research provides lasting empirical evidence and influences public policy. FRI's scientific articles can be accessed in almost all university and medical libraries around the globe.

Lastly, despite the indication from the majority of recent reviews that same-sex parents provide a good parenting environment, and that there seems to be no effect on the childs sexuality, one need recieve these results while accepting the limitations of these studies. These stem, in part, from the limited sample sizes available for study. On this matter, see for instance,
Schumm, W.R. (2004) What was really learned from Tasker and Golombok's (1995) study of lesbian and single parent mothers? Psychological Reports, 94, 422-424.